Beyond Borders: The Influence of Indian Temple Architecture on Southeast Asia

How do you see the ancient Indian temple architecture and culture influencing the development of temples in Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia?

Ancient Indian temple architecture had a profound influence on temple development in Cambodia, especially during the 1st to 9th centuries CE. This influence was facilitated by robust trade networks and vibrant cultural exchanges between the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.

Key architectural and cultural elements from India were adopted by the Khmer civilization, including the concept of the temple as a cosmic mountain, Mount Meru, the axis mundi in Hindu and Buddhist cosmology,spatial planning based on the mandala, the designs of the shikhara or prasada, Hindu and Buddhist iconography and Sanskrit inscriptions.

However, what’s particularly remarkable is how the Khmer adapted these influences. Rather than merely imitating Indian prototypes, they built on them. Monumental temples like Angkor Wat reflect not only Indian inspiration but also Khmer innovation: larger scales, extensive hydraulic engineering like barays (man-made reservoirs), use of local sandstone, the development of uniquely Khmer decorative motifs and the Devaraja cult, portraying the king as a divine ruler.

In essence, Cambodian temple architecture stands as a testament to cultural transmission as a process of creative adaptation that honored Indian origins while articulating Cambodia’s own identity and values.

What inspired you to write “Dynasties of Devotion”, and do you plan to explore other temple complexes around the world in future books?

To be honest, I was never a scholar of Indology or History. I don’t hold any formal degree in these subjects. But let me share in a little more detail how I gravitated toward this field.

My husband Vinod and I have always shared a passion for travel, especially when it comes to exploring ancient temples. Despite this long standing interest, my very first article focused on just one temple: the Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Kerala.

At the time, the temple was at the center of national attention due to the discovery of its underground vaults filled with immense wealth. A court-ordered inventory had sparked public debate and intrigue. I, too, found myself captivated. Who had placed such vast treasure there? Why was it hidden? And why is it believed to belong to Lord Vishnu?

Driven by curiosity, I began to search for answers through every source I could find. What I discovered was far more fascinating than just the treasure. The temple’s rich spiritual symbolism, its majestic gopuram, and above all, the extraordinary legacy of King Marthanda Varma left a deep impression on me. I was struck by how little we know of this inspiring history, much of which has never been taught or widely shared.

Motivated by these revelations, I wrote a detailed article exploring every aspect of the temple. The response was overwhelming. Many readers wrote to say that although they had visited the temple before, my article offered them new insights and made them want to return with a fresh perspective.

That encouragement became a turning point. I decided to write about our ancient and courageous dynasties, along with the magnificent temples they built, in order to bring their stories to light.

India and the many regions influenced by Indian culture have witnessed the rise of remarkable dynasties that left behind enduring legacies in the form of magnificent temples. Documenting all of them within a single book would be an impossible task. However, one aspect that continues to fascinate me is the spread of Hindu culture beyond India, and the extraordinary temples built in those distant lands and I am currently working on a new book dedicated to exploring it.

While Bali in Indonesia is often celebrated as a popular tourist destination, few are aware of the majestic temple complexes located near Yogyakarta. The Prambanan Hindu temple complex and the Borobudur Buddhist monument, both built in the 8th century, are architectural masterpieces. Beyond their beauty, what truly captivates me is the profound influence of Indian culture, evident in the temples’ design, intricate sculptures, and the thriving Sanskrit learning centers of that era.

Equally compelling are the ruined Hindu temples at the My Son Sanctuary in Vietnam, where exquisite sculptures have been carefully preserved and displayed in a museum nearby. Studying these temples in their historical context offers a deeper understanding of how Indian traditions took root far beyond our borders.

As an Indian, these discoveries evoke a strong sense of pride. It is my aim to share these stories with readers through a new book, and that journey is already underway.

How do the temples featured in your book showcase the intersection of historical and cultural significance, architectural design, creativity, and engineering?

When we observe our ancient temples carefully, a wealth of hidden layers begins to unfold. This book invites readers to explore how India’s remarkable achievements in architecture, sculpture, engineering, and artistic expression are vividly embodied in temple construction. At the same time, it brings to life the stories of the visionary kings and great dynasties who commissioned these temples and their courage, governance, and the inspirations that guided their creations. Understanding these elements within their historical context creates an experience that is informative and also inspiring.

Each chapter in this book weaves together architecture, history, culture, and human spiritto offer a rich and multidimensional understanding of every temple featured.

Take, for instance, the Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur. Built in the 11th century by Rajaraja Chola I, one of the most distinguished rulers of the Chola dynasty. This monumental structure stands as a pinnacle of Dravidian architecture. It was under the Cholas that this architectural style reached its zenith, and the Brihadeeswara Temple is considered one of its crowning achievements.

The temple holds immense cultural and artistic importance as well. It once served as a prestigious venue for Bharatanatyam performances, and remarkably, inscriptions detailing the temple dancers who served there are carved onto its gopuram. Many such inscriptions offer rare and valuable insights into the social and cultural realities of the time that are explored in depth within this book.

From an engineering perspective, the temple is no less impressive. It was the tallest structure in the world during its time, soaring to a height of 66 meters. Even more astonishing is the belief that its foundation was dug only five feet deep. Despite being over a thousand years old and weathering earthquakes, storms, and the passage of time, the temple still stands tall and structurally sound. Such architectural mastery is nothing short of awe-inspiring.

Each of the seven temples featured in this book reveals similarly captivating stories of innovation, artistry, devotion, and historical brilliance. As you journey through these chapters, you will find yourself immersed in the many dimensions of these magnificent temples.

Can you elaborate on the influences of Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Buddhism, and Jainism on the development of temple architecture and culture in India and Southeast Asia?

Absolutely. The architectural and cultural evolution of temples in India and later, in Southeast Asia has been deeply shaped by the philosophical and devotional expressions of these religious traditions. Each of them brought distinct iconography, spatial symbolism, and aesthetic sensibilities that left a lasting imprint on temple architecture.

Starting with Shaivism, temples dedicated to Lord Shiva often reflect a strong symbolic dimension. Since Shiva is believed to reside on Mount Kailasa, temple spires (shikharas) were designed to represent the cosmic mountain. The Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur is a striking example. Its pyramidal tower resembles a mountain, adorned with intricate carvings of Shiva, Parvati, their sons Ganesha and Kartikeya, celestial attendants, and protective deities. In the Kailasa Temple at Ellora, the sanctum is even elevated by a level, symbolically echoing the spiritual ascent toward Kailasa. These temples are visual narratives of Shaivite mythology, engraved in stone.

In Vaishnavism, regional variations led to unique architectural styles, but the underlying devotional themes remained consistent. Temples dedicated to Vishnu often depict his various incarnations: Rama, Krishna, Narasimha, and others alongside mythological episodes. The Chennakesava Temple at Belur in Karnataka, built in the Vesara style, is famed for its extraordinarily delicate stone carvings. Internationally, Angkor Wat in Cambodia stands as the largest Vishnu temple in the world. Its layout is deeply symbolic: the central shrine represents Mount Meru (the abode of the gods), surrounded by concentric enclosures representing mountain ranges and the cosmic ocean, expressed through moats.

Buddhism, especially in its early Theravādaform, discouraged anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha. Instead, sacred symbols such as the Bodhi tree, footprints, or the Dharma wheel were used and incorporated into stupas. Viharas (monasteries) and chaityas (prayer halls) were often excavated into rock, as seen in the well-preserved cave complexes at Karla and Bhaja in Maharashtra. However, with the rise ofMahāyāna Buddhism, sculpted representations of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas became prominent. Reliefs portraying scenes from the Buddha’s life and Jataka tales adorned temple walls. The Borobudur monument in Indonesia is a prime example. Its structure reflects the Buddhist philosophical progression from Kamadhatu (realm of desire) to Rupadhatu (realm of form), and finally Arupadhatu (formless realm)with intricate carvings that blend spirituality with spectacular artistry.

Jainism also made a significant contribution to temple culture, with its emphasis on spiritual purity and meditative introspection. Jain temples typically feature serene, symmetrical layouts and statues of Tirthankaras in deep meditation. At Ellora, five beautifully carved Jain caves show a refined aesthetic and philosophical clarity. Elsewhere, such as in Shravanabelagola and Kanchipuram, ancient Jain temples share structural similarities with Hindu templesviz.mandapas, sanctums, and spiresbut carry their distinct iconographic and spiritual themes.

In Southeast Asia, these Indian religious traditions integrated fluidly with local beliefs and aesthetics. What’s fascinating is how symbolic elements like Mount Meru, cosmic oceans, and mythological narratives remained intact, even as architectural forms adapted to regional tastes. The temples of Cambodia, Vietnam, and Indonesia are clear examples of this cultural synthesis, where Indian religious thought was embraced, reinterpreted, and immortalized in stone on foreign soil.

In sum, temple architecture across India and Southeast Asia is not just about religion or aesthetics. It’s a mirror reflecting layers of devotion, philosophy, engineering brilliance, and cultural exchange. Through these temples, we don’t just see history, we experience living traditions.

What insights do the temples in your book offer into the foresight and patronage of Indian rulers, such as the Cholas, Hoysalas, and Rashtrakutas, in building temples across India?

In my book, I have included seven temples. Each of them is grand, artistic, and built by historically significant royal dynasties. What makes them truly exceptional is not just their architectural brilliance, but their ability to reflect the essence and ethos of the era in which they were constructed.

The creation of such extraordinary temples requires certain favorable conditions. A ruler must be devout for temple building to be prioritized; he must be a connoisseur of the arts to act as a patron; and he must be courageous and resilient to maintain a stable political and social environment. Only in such stability can prosperity take root and make way for the creation of unparalleled artistic masterpieces. Hence, royal patronage played a crucial role in temple development.

In the chapters dedicated to each temple, I have also explored the achievements and personalities of the kings who commissioned them. This gives readers a deeper understanding of how the above conditions were met in each case.

Take, for instance, the Hoysala dynasty, under whose patronage the Chennakeshava Temple was constructed. They ruled over Karnataka between 1026 and 1343 CE and are renowned for their unique architectural style and exquisite sculpture. The Hoysala kings were not only culturally inclined, but their queens were also knowledgeable, learned, and appreciative of the arts. Some queens were even skilled artists themselves.

One notable example is Queen Shantaladevi, the chief consort of King Vishnuvardhana, the king who commissioned the Chennakesava Temple. She was a gifted dancer and had a sound understanding of temple architecture. A follower of Jainism, Queen Shantaladevi is said to have commissioned one of the temples within the Chennakesava complex and personally offered regular dance performances as a form of devotion. Her contributions are described in detail in my book.

The Hoysala kings significantly developed and expanded the Vesara style of temple architecture, resulting in the construction of around 1,500 intricately designed temples. Each dynasty featured in the book has made a major contribution to temple architecture, and the book sheds light on these vital aspects of our cultural and historical legacy.

How do the captivating histories, folklore, and mysteries surrounding each temple, such as the Sri Padmanabhaswamy Temple's hidden treasures, add to their enduring allure and spiritual significance?

To truly understand the depth of this topic, I would encourage you to read a chapter from my book Dynasties of Devotion, where I explore it in detail. However, since you specifically mentioned the Sri Padmanabhaswamy Temple, I’m happy to share a brief overview here.

The temple attracts thousands of devotees every year, drawn by both its spiritual significance and historical grandeur. One key reason for this devotion is the temple's deep antiquity. According to the Shrimad Bhagavatam, even Balaramais said to have visited this sacred site during his pilgrimage. Numerous other Puranas also reference this location.

The temple enshrines a magnificent idol of Lord Vishnu reclining on the serpent deity Ananta. The idol is so large that it must be viewed through three separate doorways. A well-known legend involving the sage Divakara Muni explains both the origin of this form and the reason for its unique darshan, which I have elaborated on in the book.

The temple’s present artistic form is largely attributed to the powerful and deeply devout King Marthanda Varma. He not only renovated the temple but also dedicated his entire kingdom to Lord Padmanabha, ruling as the Lord’s humble servant. This symbolic and spiritual act reflects the profound intertwining of governance and devotion during his reign.

During his rule, the already vast underground chambers of the temple saw a dramatic accumulation of wealth. While much of this wealth remained hidden from public knowledge for centuries, it came into the spotlight only after court-ordered inventory proceedings, sparking widespread interest and debate. I’ve detailed this entire episode in the book.

Even before these events, the temple had long been revered, drawing countless devotees despite having a strict dress code and being accessible only to Hindus. The enduring faith in the deity and the temple’s historical and spiritual aura continue to captivate pilgrims and scholars alike.